Appropriation of Armenian Cultural Heritage of Artsakh

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The 44-day war in 2020 and Azerbaijan’s military operations on September 19-20, 2023, part of a policy aimed at depopulating Artsakh (Nagorno-Karabakh), have left the region’s millennia-old Armenian cultural heritage highly vulnerable. This threat comes not only from bombing and destruction but also from the appropriation and rebranding of these invaluable cultural assets. As Azerbaijan took control of Armenian territories, it began reclassifying Armenian heritage as non-Armenian, severing ties to Armenian identity, falsifying history, and constructing a new Azerbaijani identity in areas cleansed of Armenians. This policy of cultural expropriation serves to legitimize territorial claims, fostering a narrative that Azerbaijanis or their ancestors had long inhabited the region. 

Azerbaijan’s appropriation of Armenian cultural heritage in Artsakh distorts historical facts and disconnects the community from its past. This policy prevents Artsakh Armenians from transmitting their identity to future generations. Azerbaijan’s takeover endangers around 4,000 monuments, including medieval churches and monasteries, now under Azerbaijani control.  These acts of cultural appropriation involve altering Armenian churches, denying Armenian heritage, renaming cities, villages, and streets throughout Artsakh, and reshaping Armenian cultural sites to appear Islamized, Turkified, or Russified. This includes modifying cultural landscapes, misrepresenting restoration efforts, and disrupting traditional Armenian rituals.

Professor Lori Khachaturian and Adam Smith of Cornell University note that Armenian monuments in territories under Azerbaijan’s control face a real threat of state-sponsored destruction. “Heritage appropriation is just as toxic to our understanding of the human past as its silent demolition,” they assert in a joint statement. Experts from the Institute for War and Peace Reporting further warn that Azerbaijan might destroy Armenian heritage while denying that heritage’s connection to Armenian history.

Denying evidence of the indigenous presence of the Armenians, claiming ownership of Artsakh Armenians’ entire cultural heritage, or attributing it to other nations is a key aspect of Azerbaijan’s state policy. The country’s president, ministers, diplomatic representatives, religious communities, and “scientists” promoting false Azerbaijani claims are committed to this agenda. In cases of expropriation, they often leave a monument’s exterior intact while stripping away its Armenian identity. They may attribute it to Albanians, Turks, azerbaijanize or russify it, alter its function, and disrupt its transmission to future generations. Sometimes, they erase historical inscriptions to remove traces of Armenianness or create new narratives about the heritage. This damages the intangible aspects of cultural value: history accuracy, authentic preservation, and the right to educate future generations with these cultural values. 

Albanization of Armenian Cultural Heritage of Artsakh

A theory developed in the mid-20th century, which claimed that Christian Albanians—a group that had disappeared from history—were the ancestors of Azerbaijanis, now holds a prominent place in Azerbaijan’s state policy. The theory of Albanization in Azerbaijan has deep roots,  tracing back to the 1950s. At that time, Azerbaijani historian and academic Ziya Bunyadov argued that the ancient churches in Nagorno-Karabakh were built not by Armenians, but by now-extinct Albanians. This theory aimed to erase the historical roots of Armenians, limit their right to live and create in the region, and make room for Azerbaijan’s presence. 

After the 44-day war, Azerbaijan’s President Ilham Aliyev initiated a policy involving 2,000–3,000 Christian Udis in present-day Azerbaijan to deny the Armenian origins of religious buildings and structures in Artsakh. This practice was based on the claim that the Udis are the only Christian descendants of the Caucasian Albanians, making them a political tool as the bearers of Albanian culture with the right to claim Artsakh’s Christian heritage. Ignoring historic evidence, Aliyev continuously organized visits of Udi community representatives to churches in the occupied territories, disregarding the authentic ritual traditions of the Armenian Apostolic Church. Notably, videos distributed by Azerbaijani news agencies show that during Udi divine services or prayers, the main rites of the Armenian Apostolic Church are desecrated.

Just days after the forced deportation of 120,000 Artsakh Armenians, Azerbaijan began denying the Armenian origins of Artsakh’s most important Christian monastic complexes, declaring them Albanian. Gandzasar, Amaras (dating back to the 4th-5th centuries), and other significant churches have been targeted for expropriation. Dadivank became a target of Albanianization immediately after the war’s end. Despite the presence of around 200 Armenian inscriptions, Azerbaijan claims Dadivank as part of Udi cultural heritage, disregarding its Armenian origins. 

On May 5, 2021, a video surfaced suggesting that representatives of Azerbaijan’s Udi Christian community should celebrate church holidays and perform liturgies in Dadivank. The spiritual leader of the Udis stated that Dadivank is their church complex, should have permanent priests, and that the Muslim call to prayer (azan) should be sounded there regularly.   

Dadivank Monastery was the religious center of the Vakhtangyans’ Princedom in the Principality of Upper Khachen of Artsakh. None of Dadivank’s components (architectural design, sculpture, khachkars, and frescoes) refer to Caucasian Albanian, Udi or non-Armenian culture. Apart from the 100 Armenian inscriptions of Dadivank monastery dating from the 12th to 17th centuries AD, there are no words or letters in any other language. The khachkars (cross-stones) of Dadivank embedded in the walls predate the buildings with the most recent dating to the 17th century AD. According to Adam Smith, Armenian churches, specifically Dadivank, could not have been created by Caucasian Albania, a kingdom that fell around the 8th century. 

Despite historical evidence, attempts to appropriate Dadivank persist. On September 18, 2024, Baku organized a visit for accredited ambassadors and diplomatic missions in Azerbaijan to the Karvachar region of occupied Artsakh. During this visit, Ilham Aliyev’s assistant, Hikmet Hajiyev, announced that “Dadivank and other monuments will be restored and regain their original appearance.” However, “Azerbaijani restoration,” entails the destruction of hundreds of Armenian inscriptions, crosses, and khachkars, which Azerbaijan openly considers fake. These statements pose a significant threat to Armenian monuments, as such “restoration” would erase their historical and cultural identity, along with their authenticity.  

The world has already witnessed the consequences of this approach. Exactly four years after the repeated strikes and bombings that violated customary laws of war on October 8, 2020, Azerbaijan presented the transformed appearance of the 19th-century Holy Ghazanchetsots Church in Shushi. Under the guise of restoration, the dome of the historic church was destroyed and all Armenian inscriptions were erased.

Several Armenian monasteries in Artsakh have been reclassified as Albanian during visits by representatives of the Albanian-Udian religious community. These include Saint Khach Monastery in Vank village of Hadrut, Holy Yeghishe Church in Mataghis village, and St. Hovhannes Church in Togh village of Hadrut region. In the Kashatagh region, the Armenian church of Tsitsernavank was vandalized—members of the “Albanian-Udi” community destroyed a unique glass pit housing relics and performed rituals that go against the sacred practices of the Armenian Apostolic Church. Even the Armenian church in Kavakavank, with its unique record dating to 1742, faces the threat of Albanization. These visits by “Albanian-Udi” community representatives appear to herald the erasure of the authenticity and history of Armenian churches. 

The president of Azerbaijan’s statements attempt to deny the Armenian origin of the church in Tsakuri village, Hadrut region. He claims it is Albanian, asserting that the khachkars were built during the years of Armenian occupation and the inscriptions added later. A subsequent statement, contradicting fundamental heritage preservation principles, declares that Azerbaijan must restore or reconstruct that church—an apparent ploy to erase Armenian traces and distort historical truth. To further this agenda internationally, Azerbaijan organized an exhibition in Warsaw. There, Armenian historical churches—including Dadivank, Amaras, Gandzasar, and Tsitsernavank were presented as Albanian. The exhibition also featured rituals of the “Albanian-Udian” religious minority being performed in these Armenian churches. 

Recently, Rizvan Huseynov, director of the Caucasian History Center in Azerbaijan, published videos about the Gandzasar complex. He claims that Armenians have altered the church’s historical appearance, “Armenized” it, and forged the inscriptions, asserting that they are of Albanian heritage, not Armenian. However, it is crucial to note that the outer facades of the Gandzasar St. Hovhannes-Mkrtich Church and its vestibule bear dozens of Armenian donative inscriptions. These inscriptions provide valuable insights into the political, spiritual, and economic realities of medieval Artsakh. Dismissing them as fake directly contradicts the history of the region.

Researcher Yeghishe Hambardzumyan points out that the discredited theory of Albanization—or the continuous erasure of Armenianness—served two purposes. First, it aimed to eliminate any connections between the now-extinct Caucasian Albanians and living Armenians. Second, it sought to establish a link with the now-extinct Christian civilization, creating an ancient and indigenous identity for Azerbaijanis in the South Caucasus. 

It’s important to note that from the 8th century AD, the Albanian Church’s system of beliefs and rituals, including also its liturgical language, was identical to that of the Armenian Apostolic Church. In 1836, the Tsarist government abolished the Albanian Church, and the Christian Udi communities were incorporated into the Shemakha Diocese of the Armenian Apostolic Church. Until the 1990s, most Udis living in modern Azerbaijan were followers of the Armenian Apostolic Church.

The International Court of Justice at The Hague’s order from December 7, 2021 failed to halt Azerbaijan’s actions. This failure demonstrates Azerbaijan’s blatant disregard for international norms and reaffirms its intent to eradicate Armenian heritage by any means. The order mandated that  Azerbaijan “Take all necessary measures to prevent and punish acts of vandalism and desecration affecting Armenian cultural heritage, including but not limited to churches and other places of worship, monuments, landmarks, cemeteries and artifacts.”

The Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe, in its 2021 Resolution 2391 addresses the humanitarian consequences of the Armenia and Azerbaijan/Nagorno-Karabakh conflict. Article 18.4  expresses concern about Azerbaijan’s emerging narrative promoting a “Caucasian Albanian” heritage to replace what is considered “Armenian” cultural heritage. Furthermore, in Article 18.6, it calls on UNESCO to investigate this “Caucasian Albanian” heritage narrative to ensure neither side is manipulating it.

Islamization of Armenian Heritage of Artsakh

Azerbaijan’s policy of appropriation is evident in the Islamization of Armenian heritage, particularly impacting the cultural heritage of Shushi and Hadut. Since 2021, various forums have been held in Shushi, aiming to distort the city’s historical and cultural identity by presenting it to the international community and organizations as solely Azerbaijani.  On September 17, 2021, at the 38th International Meeting of Turkish Ministers in Khiva, Uzbekistan, Minister Anar Kerimov confirmed Baku’s intention to declare Shushi the “Cultural Capital of the Turkic World 2023”. Furthermore, in May 2024, a memorandum of cooperation was signed in Shushi between the Heydar Aliyev Foundation and ISESCO. This agreement provides for the exchange of experience in culture, science, and education, the development of new technologies, and the implementation of joint projects in Shushi and other cities.

In Shushi, Azerbaijan constructed a museum, mosque, and square on the site of a former Armenian Genocide monument, which Azerbaijan had previously destroyed. In September 2024, President Aliyev attended the opening of “Flag Square,” built in 2021 where the Genocide memorial once stood. Azerbaijani media reports that a “Victory Museum” commemorating Azerbaijan’s victory in the 44-day war will also be built there. Furthermore, a new Shushi Mosque is under construction, symbolizing Azerbaijan’s “victory.” President Aliyev laid its foundation stone in May 2021.

Since 2020, a new trend of Islamization has emerged in Artsakh, affecting its historical, cultural, and natural landscape. This state policy is evident in the construction of new mosques throughout the region. These mosques, funded by the Heydar Aliyev Foundation, are being constructed in Shushi, Hadrut, Karintak, Mataghis, Berdzor, and Zangelan. 

In Hadrut, Mataghis, and Karintak—areas historically without a Muslim population—mosques are being constructed on elevated terrain. Notably, these new mosques span Artsakh’s geography: one in Hadrut to the south, another in Mataghis to the north, and one in Karintak in the central region. Moreover, a new mosque is under construction in Berdzor, the town formerly known as Lachin. 

Hadrut is undergoing Islamization through mosque construction and the official approval of a project to convert Saint Harutyun Church into an Albanian religious site. The Azerbaijani government has posted a sign indicating plans for excavations around the church of the Holy Resurrection followed by its restoration and the establishment of a Caucasian Albanian cultural museum. This effort appears to reframe the historically Armenian Hadrut as part of an Islamic, Azerbaijani heritage. The project also includes “restoration” of Hadrut’s historical core and several other monuments. In this Hadrut settlement, which has long had a predominantly Armenian population and distinct Armenian cultural and religious heritage, a new Azerbaijani identity is being constructed at the expense of its original history. As part of this narrative shift, a mosque was built in Hadrut in 2021, despite the city’s historical lack of a Muslim population.

International Prohibitions on Appropriation of Cultural Heritage

The appropriation of Armenian cultural heritage by Azerbaijan, the Albanianization of Armenian historical churches, and the Islamization of Artsakh threaten the heritage of Armenians. These actions strip this heritage of its main value and deprive it of authenticity and integrity. Such practices are prohibited by UNESCO and two key documents: the Nara document on the authenticity of cultural heritage, adopted in Japan in 1994, and the document adopted by ICOMOS in New Delhi in 2017․

Article 4 of the 1954 Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict and Article 9(c) of its 1999 Second Protocol prohibit any transformation of cultural property or change in its use intended to conceal or destroy cultural, historical, or scientific evidence. Altering the function of churches violates the Armenian community’s fundamental cultural rights to preserve and practice their religious beliefs and rituals in their authentic form. These rights are protected by Article 27 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and Article 15 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (1966), which enshrine the right of every person to participate freely in their community’s cultural life.

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